2. Articulation

In the field of voice science articulation is defined as "the physical pro­cess of breaking up or interrupting the phonated or non-phonated breath stream into vowel links2.M The phonated breath stream carries the vowel and semi-vowel sounds, and the voiced consonants; the non-phonated breath stream carries the unvoiced consonants.

Articulation is brought about by stops or partial blocks in or closely connected with the oral cavity. These stops or partial blocks are set up by the articulators—the tongue, the lips, the teeth, and the soft palate.

Through the medium of breath and sound, articulation shapes or moulds the sound patterns of a language into what we call speech or diction.

Diction

Good diction in singing is usually thought of as the clear and accurate articulation of the words of a song so that the text and the meaning can be understood. However, good diction in singing involves more than just being understood. Good diction is dependent on good quality, not only for clarity , but also for fullness and beauty of sound.

Diction in singing involves three processes—enunciation, articulation, and pronunciation.

For each process the dictionary gives more than one definition. To begin with, enunciation and articulation are used interchangeably. The overall process of breaking up the breath-stream into syllables and words is defined as articulation, yet articulation is also defined as "the articulate utterance of an elementary sound, especially a consonant." Enunciation is defined as a "mode of utterance or pronunciation of a sound for clarity and fullness of articulation. "w Pronunciation is defined as "the process of uniting vowels and consonants into syllables, or the way the sounds of a language are arti­culated and enunciated. "w

In order to eliminate confusion, the following definitions are suggested for use in the teaching of singing:

Enunciation:   the production of vowel sounds; ideally to achieve fullness and purity

Articulation: the production of consonants; ideally to achieve clarity and accuracyPronunciation: singing in what is considered to be the acceptable pro­nunciation of vowels and consonants for artistic singing in English or in a foreign language.

The same vocal mechanism is used in singing as in speech. Both are dependent on a co-ordination of the processes of respiration, phonation, arti­culation, and resonation. Singing has been defined as a form of sustained speech. The sustaining process must necessarily be done on the vowel sounds, since they are the vocal part of singing. The vocal part or voice is produced at the level of the larynx, called the voice box. The sustaining process is the developing and conditioning process. The emphasis should be on the vowels, with comparatively little emphasis on the consonants. This is best accomplished through vocalization (vowelization), to establish a good legato, the basis for a good singing technique. Legato (smooth) or lyrical singing not only develops the vocal powers but keeps the voice in good condition. This is in contrast to dramatic singing where great­er emphasis falls on the consonants, which because of their nature—stops, plosives, and sibilants—work against the smooth development of the mus­culature of the vocal mechanism.

The Italian language is considered to be the ideal language for singing. It is basically a vowel language, since most words end in a vowel sound. The result is a good legato or flowing tone, both of which are essential to good singing. But the hidden reason is that in Italian the vowels are sung very "open." Acoustically, an open vowel is one that sounds "open" in contrast to one that sounds "closed." In English, the long o, (usually length­ened until it resembles a diphthong), as in "go," sounds closed; the short o, a single sound as in "water," sounds open. The long oo, as in "who," sounds closed; the short oo as in "bull" sounds open.

From a physical standpoint however, the openness of the sound may be said to depend not only on how effectively the oral pharynx is used as a re­sonator, but also on how effectively it is used as an enunciator of the vowel sounds. "Open" vowel singing sets up the oral pharynx as resonator, and when co-ordinated with the actions of the back of the tongue, the soft palate, and the epiglottis, as enunciator as well.

The vocal mechanism responds to pharyngeal control to the best advan­tage, regardless of what language is sung. There is no other type of pro­duction that makes possible the attainment of the goals and objectives.

The protective device for this type of singing is the illusion of nasality. This illusion is created through the use of a relaxed m hum, lips closed, teeth slightly apart, followed by an open vowel sound, preferably. Many teachers use humming to get the tone forward out of the throat.

The use of the relaxed m hum relaxes the swallowing muscles and opens the nasal port, allowing the breath to pass through the nose. With the change to the vowel, the palate should raise sufficiently to prevent the breath passing through the nose. The idea is to maintain the tactile sensation of the hum in the front of the face or forward in the masque, without the breath passing through the nose, when a change is made to an "open" vowel sound. The resultant tone quality is called "nasal" resonance, in contrast to "nasality."

Both Bartholomew and Russell £re of the opinion that there is no reson­ance above the level of the mouth, except on the nasals, in a good singing tone. This has been substantiated in their research studies on good quality. Wooldridge23in his research study on nasal resonance proved that there was no noticeable change in the singing quality of a group of good singers, when the nasal passages were plugged or unplugged.

In spite of the evidence based on research that good singing is dependent on a closure, perhaps not complete, of the nasal port, there are those who believe that the nasal passages and the head are resonators. What is mis­leading to most singers is the illusion of nasality caused by bone conduction of sound vibrations. The singer usually interprets these sound vibrations as resonance.   Along with this illusion goes another illusion—the feeling that the nasal port at the back of the nose is open.

These illusions are helpful in establishing and maintaining good tone quality, not only in singing but in speech. Through the process of keeping the sound vibrations forward as in humming and maintaining this humming sensation in terms of "nasal" resonance instead of "nasality," great flexi­bility of the oral pharynx is possible.

Pharyngeal flexibility is one of the secrets of good or great singing. It is reflected in the ease with which the walls of the oral pharynx, the back and base of the tongue, and the soft palate change to form different vowel shapes or sets. Along with these changes there are also changes in the epiglottis, in the larynx, and in the vocal cords themselves. In other words the articulatery vocal mechanism, the larynx and the pharynx, works as a unit, in the enunciation of the vowel sounds. From this standpoint, the pro­cess of phonation can be considered as a part of the enunciation of the vowel sounds.24

The result of great flexibility is freedom, which makes possible a pharyn­geal control of the vowel sounds. Pharyngeal control is in fact a form of ventriloquism, which frees the front of the face for facial expression, and releases the lips, the tip of the tongue, and the lower jaw for a more flex­ible articulation of the consonants. Pharyngeal control should be an in­direct control, the servant of the mind; through a singing speech or diction; controlling quality, breath support, loud and soft singing, agility, and range. Pharyngeal control should be the co-ordinating factor of the four processes of respiration, phonation, articulation, and resonation.

The technical goal for a student of singing can be stated as follows:

A pharyngeal control of the vowel sounds, balanced by lip action when necessary, with a clear and accurate articulation of the consonants, sup­ported by a variable pressure flow of the breath, in a nasal-pharyngeal (normal) quality.

A Basic Rule for Diction

A study of the Italian language offers a solution to the problem of how to make speech more vocal or singable. Practically all words in Italian end in a vowel sound. This results in a flowing tone or good legato, the basis of good singing. A basic rule which can be applied to singing in English and other languages can be stated as follows:

End each syllable in an open vowel sound, and carry final consonants and second sounds of diphthongs* over and merge them in with the next syl­lable."

The carrying over process is called liaison, the process of linking. This is essential to a good legato, or smoothness of the tonal line. A smooth, flowing tone is more restful to the listener, and thus more enjoyable.

The nature of singing itself, a form of sustained speech, actually re­quires the use of liaison. Without it the tonal line would be constantly in­terrupted.

*There are no diphthongs in Italian

It is omitted however in English and French where it would confuse the meaning. In German, where most words end in a consonant, a form of liaison can be used without actually merging or linking a final consonant or vowel in with the next syllable. This is accomplished by using a very short glottal stop, followed by a legato attack. Artistic singing avoids the sharp or staccato attack, the so-called stroke of the glottis.

An approach to a choral singing diction is the Waring Choral Technique of "Tone Syllables" which is actually a development of the Vaccai Italian ap­proach applied to English. Each word is broken down into its simplest units of sound. Each of these units of sound is pronounced with exaggerated dis­tinctness.   Four rules are advanced as a basis for "Tone Syllables."

1. All consonants which have pitch should be sung with exaggerated intensity and duration.
2. Continuity of tone should be established from syllable to syllable, and from word to word.
3. Each tone syllable should be placed within the time value of the note or notes on which it is sung.
4. All vowel sounds should be sung with what seems to be exaggerated distinctness.

Rule two, on continuity of tone, makes use of the principle of liaison, to prevent any open space between syllables and words. The end of each syllable or word should be joined to the following syllable or word.

Another approach to a singing diction is the opposite of liaison. When a syllable or word ends in a consonant, and is followed by a vowel, for example, thine (uh) eyes; there is a complete stop before enunciating the vowel that follows. In the case of a doubled consonant, the first one is finish­ed before articulating the second. The same process is followed when a syllable ends in one consonant followed by a different one. For example, drink (plosive) to; with (sibilant) thine; pledge (uh) with. The teachers of this approach are very much in the minority. This treatment is believed to bring out the words more clearly, particularly when the singer is singing with a large orchestra.

Diction Standards Pronunciation

Most countries have their own standards of what is good pronunciation or diction in singing for their particular country. Parisian French is the standard in France; high or Berlin German in Germany; and the Toscan dia­lect in Italy.

In the United States there has been no general acceptance among teach­ers of singing or singers of a particular standard other than to be understood. Artistic singing in this country has for the most part followed the General American dialect. This is probably due to the fact that it is more generally understood. Since it is not a glide or drawl dialect, it fits the Italian rule for good diction, does not substitute one vowel sound for another, and re­tains the r. This is in contrast to the Coastal Eastern dialect which sub­stitutes the broad ah vowel sound in words where the a as in hat is generally used, and drops the r. Although the General American dialect sounds flat and nasal to the Coastal Eastern advocates, the Coastal Eastern dialect sounds affected to the middle westerner.

Two other basic dialects are the Plantation Southern and the Highland Southern. Both are drawl or glide dialects, where single sounds are diph­thongized or even triphthongized. When the Italian rule for diction is applied, the drawl or glide tends to disappear. The Plantation Southern drops the medial or final r. The tone quality has a more forward and flatter sound than the broader and rounder quality of the Coastal Eastern. The Highland Southern retains the "r" sound but has an objectionable nasal quality. It is characterized by the use of the short "i" sound for the short "e" sound in pen, which becomes pin, ten becomes tin, etc. It sets the standard for hill-billy singing.

Singing versus Speech

The same mechanism and the same processes of respiration, phonation, articulation and resonation are involved in both singing and speech. There are certain differences however that distinguish one from the other. They may be listed as follows:

1. Singing is more sustained than speech.  Singing may be defined as a form of sustained speech.
   
2. Singing is a form of slow motion speech, that is, the completion of the words is delayed.
   
3. In singing what sounds like words is actually a matter of tone syllables joined together to sound like words.
   
4. In singing there is a definite melody, a definite rhythm, which should not be broken, and definite note values. These are not character­istics of speech. Slow, sustained oratorical speech approaches the singing process.
   
5. One of the peculiar  characteristics of English speech,  which is usually carried over into natural singing, is the unstressing of the vowel sounds when they occur in unaccented positions2.8 For example,
   in the phrase:  I heard a forest praying - the indefinite article modi­fies to the neutral vowel sound uh (Ə), as does the e in the   word forest, with this result:   uh forust praying.   Or in the phrase, —the leaves of the judgment book   unfold — the definite article the be­ comes thuh, of becomes uhv, and the word judgment becomes judgmunt.  When a singer sings as he speaks, he will unconsciously unstress the unaccented sounds, which with less intensity modify to the neutral vowel UH.   This results in an uneven scale of loudness, and interferes with the clarity of the diction.   This can be counter­ acted by stressing the unaccented sounds, but with less emphasis or loudness than the accented ones. For example in the word, angels, when the second syllable is unstressed, the word becomes anguls (angəls); when stressed,  the word becomes angels (angəls), but the second syllable should be marked with a decrease in loudness.
   

A comparison between Speech and Singing can be made as to style:

1. The Conversational style in speech may be said to be similar to the parlante style in singing;
   
2. The classroom or stage diction, comparable to the recitative style in singing; and
   
3. The oratorical style, comparable to the aria or full-voice style in
   singing.
   

Four Approaches to the Study of Singing Diction

Although the development of a singing diction must obviously be based on sound, it is helpful to analyze the process by using four more specific ap­proaches:   the acoustical, the position, the tactile, and the kinesthetic.

The Acoustical Approach

The acoustical approach is based on what the student and the teacher hear. It is the foundation for learning to speak or learning to sing. One hears first and then one imitates what he hears. Through a trial-and-error process the individual learns to speak vowel sounds, and then to combine sounds with consonants to say words. Along with this process goes learning to connect sounds and words with people, objects, and actions.

Learning to sing follows learning to speak, although some children learn to hum or to actually sing musical sounds before they can speak. How quickly or how well a child sings will depend on the amount of vocal talent that he possesses. By talent we mean that a child has an "ear" for music, the ability to sing accurately and in tune, and to remember musical patterns. Such an individual sings naturally without any regard for how he sings. Such talent is a natural endowment.

Learning "how to sing" in order to reach the goals and objectives as set up in vocal literature is dependent on learning singing techniques—expert methods. Although talent is inherent or innate, techniques must be acquired. Here the student of singing is at a disadvantage. He does not hear himself as others hear him. He is necessarily dependent on a teacher's judgment in matters of quality, diction, intonation, and accuracy. The teacher must know what to listen for and how to correct the student's efforts. This is the acous­tical approach.

The acoustical terminology for a language divides the speech sounds in­to vowels, semi-vowels, diphthongs, and consonants. For the vowel sounds such terms as "long" and "short, ""open" and "closed," "pure" and "impure," and "tense11 and "lax" are used. For the consonants there is a comprehensive listof terms descriptive of the type of sound, such as plosives, nasals, frica­tives, sibilants, affricates, trilled or semi-trilled, and voiced or voiceless. There are also terms descriptive of the positions of the articulators, such as bi-labial, labial-dental, lingual-dental, and lingual-palatal.

Phonetics

The use of phonetics should be considered part of the acoustical approach to the training of the singing voice. Phonetics are symbols representing sounds. Each symbol represents one sound. Teachers and students should learn to spell words in sounds rather than in letters.   This is helpful in

The Tactile or Placement Approach

The tactile or placement approach is based on sensations of feeling. These are sensations in the head based on bone conduction of sound, and although they are a form of sympathetic resonance, they are usually mis­taken for true resonance.

Many teachers make use of these sensations to establish what has been called "singing forward-in-the-masque." The idea is to keep the vowels or tone out of the throat. Other expressions have been developed from this idea, such as: "sing to the teeth"; "sing to the tip of the nose"; "sing to the back of the eyes"; "feel it high"; "feel it forward"; "lean against the back of the nose." Many students try to connect this idea of placement with what the teacher points out as the correct tone production. What complicates the tactile approach is that sensations of placement vary according to the range, the loudness, and the tessitura of the music.

Many teachers use humming coupled with the high front vowels, a pro­cess which sets up high forward vibrations due to the varying high front positions of the tongue. Humming, of course, is a form of nasality due to the passage of breath through the nose. The vowel sounds coupled with the humming should not be nasal, but the high forward sensation in humming should be maintained. The result is a pseudo-nasal resonance which teachers of singing call "nasal" resonance. Unfortunately many students try to avoid this quality, which is basically the normal quality for singing and which makes possible the greatest development of both the singing and the speaking voice.

The next step is to "place" the central and the low back vowels, par­ticularly oh and oo in the same nasal-resonance quality as the high front vowels. This is difficult because of the varying low positions of the front of the tongue. The final result should be what is called an "even scale," with all the vowel sounds fitting into the same pattern of "nasal" resonance!0

Most authorities on voice are agreed that voice placement is not a matter of placing the voice in some particular spot. For the most part, they be­lieve that placing the voice means classifying it properly as a low, middle, or high voice, and establishing the normal quality for that type of voice. The so-called "singing forward-in-the-masque" is actually an illusion of placement, which has the effect of relaxing the swallowing muscles, allow­ing great flexibility of the pharyngeal muscles in the shaping of the vowel sounds, and of the lips, the tongue, the soft palate, and the lower jaw in the production of both vowels and consonants.

The Kinesthetic Approach

The kinesthetic approach is based on the muscular sense.

Certain muscular movements of the articulators—the tongue, the lips, the soft palate, the lower jaw, and the pharynx—can be sensed, and their action developed and controlled within certain limits. Most teachers are opposed to conscious physical effort, even though it may later become in­voluntary. They believe that most of the problems in the teaching of singing can be solved indirectly through the use of imagery. Although this is basically true, there are some individuals who do not respond to imagery alone. Some of the direct physical techniques based on the muscular sense include tongue exercises to develop flexibility of the tongue, learning to raise and lower the soft palate, depressing the lower jaw, and shaping the lips.

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